Category: Environment

Spain and England experienced their hottest June on record, as a severe heatwave gripped Europe, impacting daily life and leading to widespread concerns about climate change.

Spain and England have recorded their hottest June ever, as blistering temperatures continue to affect Europe. According to Aemet, Spain’s weather service, June’s average temperature was an unprecedented 23.6C (74.5F), surpassing records typically seen in July and August.

The situation is similar in England, where the Met Office reported that June’s mean temperature hit a record 16.9C, making it the hottest June since monitoring began in 1884. The UK as a whole recorded its second warmest June on record, with a mean temperature of 15.2C, only surpassed by June 2023 which saw 15.8C.

In Portugal, a daily high of 46.6C was recorded in Mora, exceeding the national June record. The country’s monthly average data has yet to be finalized.

The extreme weather has had severe consequences. In Turkey, tens of thousands of residents were evacuated as wildfires swept through several provinces, causing significant damage and prompting emergency responses. Two separate heat-related fatalities were reported in Italy.

Meanwhile, night-time temperatures remained high across Spain, with Seville and Barcelona registering 28C and 27C, respectively. The UK recorded its hottest day of the year with 34.7C in St James’s Park, London, after seeing 33.1C at Heathrow Airport the previous day. Wimbledon experienced its hottest opening day with 32.9C.

In France, the heatwave prompted red alert warnings across Paris and 15 other regions, leading to the closure of nearly 1,896 schools and colleges. At Paris Orly airport, the temperature reached 37.6C. The intense heat also led to the closure of the Eiffel Tower.

Italy’s Tuscany region reported a 20% increase in hospital admissions, and work hours were adjusted to avoid the hottest part of the day. In Florence, a temperature of 38.9C was recorded, while Cagliari in the south reached 38.6C. In Greece, temperatures approached 40C, causing wildfires in coastal areas near Athens. Similarly, Germany’s Rivalling heat forced a warning as temperatures neared 38C, affecting the Rhine River’s shipping capacity due to lower water levels.

The heatwave also had environmental impacts. The Adriatic Sea’s rising temperatures accommodated invasive species like lionfish and stressed shrinking alpine glaciers. In the Balkans, intense heat led to cooler conditions; however, wildfires persisted in Montenegro.

The United Nations’ Human Rights Chief, Volker Turk, highlighted the heatwave’s alarming implications, stressing the urgent need for adopting climate-friendly practices. Rising temperatures, floods, and droughts pose threats to public health and environmental sustainability. According to the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, human activity is intensifying heatwaves which are expected to become more severe with ongoing global warming.

Richard Allan, Professor of Climate Science at the University of Reading, explained that greenhouse gas accumulation is making it more challenging for Earth to shed surplus heat, resulting in escalated heatwave intensity.

As Europe faces one of its hottest summers, the impact of climate change becomes increasingly visible, urging collective action towards sustainability and environmental consciousness.

Source: Original article

Summer officially kicks off this Friday with the occurrence of the Summer Solstice, the astronomical event that marks the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere. At precisely 10:42 p.m. EDT on June 20 (or 0242 GMT on June 21), the sun will reach its highest point north of the celestial equator. This moment signifies the sun appearing directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, located at 23.5 degrees north latitude. That spot lies in the western Pacific Ocean, approximately 1,400 miles south of Tokyo, Japan.

In regions situated at mid-northern latitudes, the sun is never seen directly overhead. Yet, it does reach its annual peak altitude in the sky on this day. For instance, in Philadelphia, at 1:02 p.m. EDT during the solstice, the sun will reach its zenith for the year—soaring to 73 degrees above the southern horizon. To visualize this height, one can use a simple hand trick: a clenched fist held at arm’s length equals about 10 degrees. Using this method, Philadelphians would see the sun climb more than seven fists above the southern horizon. Because of this high arc across the sky, the city will experience the year’s longest span of daylight, precisely 15 hours.

However, this does not imply a full 9-hour window for stargazing after sunset. Twilight plays a crucial role in reducing the hours of true darkness. Around the June solstice at 40 degrees north latitude, both morning and evening twilight extend slightly over two hours each. As a result, there are only about five hours of complete darkness.

The higher the latitude, the longer twilight endures. At 45 degrees north, twilight stretches for two and a half hours. At 50 degrees, it persists all night, meaning the sky never becomes entirely dark. In contrast, further south, twilight is briefer. At 30 degrees latitude, twilight lasts 96 minutes, and in San Juan, Puerto Rico, it’s only 80 minutes. This phenomenon often surprises tourists from the northern United States when they notice how rapidly night falls in the Caribbean compared to their hometowns.

Interestingly, the solstice does not align with the year’s earliest sunrise or latest sunset. The earliest sunrise already happened on June 14, while the latest sunset will occur on June 27.

A common misconception is that Earth is closest to the sun during the summer solstice. In reality, the opposite is true. On July 3 at 3:55 p.m. EDT (19:55 Universal Time), Earth will reach aphelion, its farthest point from the sun in its elliptical orbit. At that time, our planet will be 94,502,939 miles (152,087,738 km) away from the sun.

Conversely, Earth reached perihelion, the closest point to the sun, on January 4. The difference between aphelion and perihelion is about 3,096,946 miles (4,984,051 km), roughly 3.277 percent. This variation translates into an approximate 7 percent difference in the solar energy received by Earth. In theory, this should mean milder summers and warmer winters in the Northern Hemisphere. However, the abundance of landmass in the Northern Hemisphere produces the opposite effect, generally resulting in colder winters and hotter summers compared to the Southern Hemisphere.

Following the solstice, the sun will begin its gradual migration southward, causing daylight hours in the Northern Hemisphere to slowly decline. Remarkably, after June 21, the days won’t begin to grow longer again until December 22, just three days before Christmas. Nonetheless, the sun has already been tracing a high path through the sky since mid-May, so the shortening of daylight immediately following the solstice will be quite subtle.

Some calendars mark August 1 as Lammas Day, a holiday derived from the Old English “loaf-mass.” Traditionally, this day celebrated the beginning of the harvest and was once considered the midpoint of summer. However, from a purely astronomical perspective, the actual midpoint of the summer season in 2024 lands on August 6 at 6:30 p.m. EDT. On that date in Philadelphia, the sun will set at 8:08 p.m., and the city will have lost just 56 minutes of daylight since June 20.

But the real effects of the sun’s southward shift begin to show more prominently during the latter half of summer. By the time autumn officially arrives on September 22, the sunset in Philadelphia will occur at 6:57 p.m., nearly an hour and ten minutes earlier than on August 6. The total loss of daylight from that midpoint of summer to the fall equinox will amount to 1 hour and 55 minutes.

This seasonal decline in sunlight even had practical implications for legendary New York Yankees catcher Yogi Berra during his Hall of Fame career. When he occasionally played in left field during late summer, he noted the difficulty of spotting fly balls due to the lengthening shadows as the sun sank lower in the sky. Berra, known for his quirky and memorable sayings, once summed up this natural shift with a unique phrase: “It’s getting late early out there.”

While Berra may not have known the specific astronomical mechanics behind the sun’s apparent movement and the waning daylight, his words captured the essence of late summer’s changing light in a way that was both poetic and accurate.

Thus, as the Summer Solstice ushers in the official start of the season, it also sets in motion the gradual reduction of daylight. While the change is barely noticeable in the days immediately following June 21, the shift becomes more prominent as summer progresses, affecting everything from sunset times to the colors of the sky—and even how Hall of Famers see baseballs in flight.

The third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3), co-hosted by France and Costa Rica, concluded in Nice with a powerful message urging world leaders to move beyond pledges and start implementing real change to protect the planet’s oceans. Over the course of 11 days, the conference brought together more than 15,000 participants, including 50 heads of state and government, scientists, civil society organizations, Indigenous leaders, and youth activists. The event was widely hailed as a major moment for ocean diplomacy, testing how serious the international community is about delivering on ocean conservation.

“This conference has been a resounding success,” declared Olivier Poivre d’Arvor, France’s Special Envoy for the Ocean. “We close not just with hope, but with concrete commitments, clear direction, and undeniable momentum.”

Costa Rica’s Foreign Minister Arnoldo André Tinoco echoed this optimism, praising the inclusive nature of the summit. “Together with France, we worked toward an action-oriented conference where all actors are represented and where finance and science go hand in hand,” he said.

Under-Secretary-General Li Chunhua, the Secretary-General of the conference, provided a reality check by reminding attendees that actions must follow words. “The real test is not what we said here but what we do next. The wave of change has formed. Now, it is our collective responsibility to propel it forward.”

Among the most significant developments at UNOC3 was progress toward ratifying the High Seas Treaty, formally called the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement. With 51 countries having now ratified the treaty, the number required to bring it into force is just nine short of the 60 needed. Once active, the treaty would pave the way for the creation of marine protected areas in international waters, advancing the goal of protecting 30 percent of the ocean by 2030.

In addition to this progress, over 800 new voluntary commitments were announced through 10 multi-stakeholder Ocean Action Panels. These initiatives covered a wide range of issues including marine pollution, safeguarding deep-sea ecosystems, financing ocean protection, and honoring the role of Indigenous peoples in ocean stewardship.

Several major initiatives launched during the summit included:

• The One Ocean Finance Facility, designed to address the large funding shortfall in ocean conservation.
• The European Ocean Pact, aimed at enhancing cooperation for sustainable ocean management across European nations.
• The Ocean Rise and Coastal Resilience Coalition, which seeks to support communities most vulnerable to sea-level rise.

The conference also saw growing global resistance to deep-sea mining. Four more countries joined the call for a moratorium, bringing the total to 37. “More and more countries are listening to science and the demands of youth for their common heritage over commercial interests,” said Tinoco.

However, while the commitments were numerous, not everyone was satisfied. Environmental groups expressed disappointment that the conference didn’t deliver stronger, legally binding decisions, especially regarding deep-sea mining. Megan Randles, who led the Greenpeace delegation, voiced this concern bluntly: “We’ve heard lots of fine words here in Nice, but these need to turn into tangible action. Countries must be brave and make history by committing to a moratorium on deep-sea mining at next month’s International Seabed Authority (ISA) meeting.”

Randles acknowledged the progress on the High Seas Treaty but felt it was still insufficient. “The deep sea should not become the wild west,” she warned, referencing a recent remark made by UN Secretary-General António Guterres.

Activists also highlighted the importance of the upcoming negotiations in Geneva this August for a Global Plastics Treaty. Ninety-five governments signed the “Nice Call for an Ambitious Plastics Treaty,” but there are serious concerns that industry lobbying, particularly from oil and petrochemical sectors, could weaken the agreement.

“The world cannot afford a weak treaty dictated by oil-soaked obstructionists,” said John Hocevar, Oceans Campaign Director at Greenpeace USA. “Governments need to show that multilateralism still works for people and the planet, not the profits of a greedy few.”

Indigenous and coastal communities played a visible and vocal role at UNOC3. Their presence was especially prominent in the “Green Zone” located in La Valette, which hosted over 100,000 visitors and featured events ranging from grassroots panels to art exhibitions and youth forums.

Nichanan Thantanwit, Project Leader at the Ocean Justice Project, underscored the vital role of Indigenous voices in ocean protection. “There is no ocean protection without the people who have protected it all along. Governments must recognize small-scale fishers and Indigenous peoples as rights-holders and secure their role in ocean governance,” she said. She also condemned environmentally harmful practices such as bottom trawling and industrial aquaculture, noting that these “drive ecological collapse and human rights violations.”

While the French government hosted the event and President Emmanuel Macron reiterated his backing of a deep-sea mining moratorium—describing it as “an international necessity”—some conservationists felt France had not fully lived up to its leadership role. Enric Sala, National Geographic Explorer in Residence and founder of Pristine Seas, expressed disappointment with France’s performance. “This was France’s moment, but instead of making a splash, its impact was more of a ripple,” he said.

Sala acknowledged the positive actions of countries that announced new marine protected areas but added that the overall tone of the conference leaned heavily toward talk rather than decisive action. “We heard many policymakers speak about what needs to be done—yet few took the bold steps necessary to protect the ocean,” he said, adding that the event was “heavy on rhetoric, light on resolve.”

Looking ahead, a political declaration known as the “Nice Ocean Action Plan” is expected to be released soon. Though non-binding, it could play a significant role in shaping decisions at the ISA meeting in July and the plastics treaty negotiations in August.

Under-Secretary-General Chunhua shared that both South Korea and Chile have expressed interest in hosting the next United Nations Ocean Conference. “We want the positive momentum generated in Nice to amplify even further in UNOC4,” he stated.

As the curtain falls on UNOC3, there is a sense of optimism, but the question remains: Will this gathering result in meaningful change? Greenpeace’s Randles offered a closing reflection that captured the spirit of many attendees: “This must not be where it ends. It must be where it truly begins.”

In a rare and unexpected shift, scientists have recently documented a significant increase in the Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS), suggesting a temporary reversal in the continent’s long-term ice loss trend. While this development brings a glimmer of optimism, researchers are urging the public not to mistake it for a long-term climate recovery. Instead, they caution that this uptick in ice mass is likely a short-lived result of unusual weather patterns and does not negate the larger threats posed by global climate change.

According to a newly published study in Science China Earth Sciences, the AIS gained mass at an unprecedented rate between 2021 and 2023. As reported by KTVU, this represents a dramatic shift from the preceding decade, during which the Antarctic was steadily losing ice. “The study found that between 2011 and 2020, the AIS was losing ice at a rate of 142 gigatons per year,” KTVU reported. “But between 2021 and 2023, the trend reversed, with the ice sheet gaining approximately 108 gigatons per year — a historic turnaround.”

The regions that experienced the most noticeable recovery were primarily located in East Antarctica. Areas such as Wilkes Land and Queen Mary Land, including important glacier basins like Totten, Denman, Moscow University, and Vincennes Bay, showed signs of partial recovery. These zones had previously been major contributors to ice loss, with the Denman Glacier, in particular, being a focal point of concern due to its deep grounding line and vulnerability to melting.

This unexpected mass gain provided a short-term benefit in global sea-level trends. KTVU noted that the added ice “helped temporarily offset rising global sea levels by 0.3 millimeters per year during that two-year span.” While this might seem like a small amount, any delay in sea-level rise offers valuable time for adaptation strategies in vulnerable coastal regions.

However, experts emphasize that this development should not lead to complacency regarding the climate emergency. The AIS, which stores 90% of the planet’s freshwater, has the potential to dramatically reshape coastlines if it were to melt significantly. The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition has previously warned that a substantial melt would result in massive rises in sea levels, displacing populations, damaging infrastructure, and triggering broad ecological disruptions.

Despite the promising news, scientists point out that the ice gains are likely the result of increased snowfall driven by unusual weather patterns rather than a cooling trend. As KTVU explained, “scientists stressed that the climate crisis is far from over and that the gains could likely be attributed to unusual precipitation patterns, something that is also a sign of rising temperatures.”

This paradox — that increased snowfall can be a byproduct of warming — is a key concept in understanding the complex dynamics of climate systems. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has explained this phenomenon: as global ocean temperatures rise, more water evaporates into the atmosphere. This excess moisture eventually returns to the surface in the form of heavier rainfall or snowfall when it collides with storm systems. So, while snow accumulation in Antarctica might suggest colder conditions at first glance, it can actually be a symptom of a warming world.

Another concern raised by climate researchers involves the role of subglacial water, an often overlooked factor in ice dynamics. In May 2025, scientists warned that current models might be underestimating the contribution of meltwater beneath the ice sheet. This subglacial water forms either from the pressure of the overlying ice or from geothermal heat emanating from the Earth’s bedrock. When this water accumulates, it can act as a lubricant, allowing glaciers to move more quickly toward the ocean.

The implications of this overlooked element are troubling. Researchers have projected that the presence of subglacial meltwater could significantly boost the AIS’s contribution to sea-level rise over the coming centuries. “They predicted the effects of subglacial water could contribute 2.2 meters (about 7.2 feet) to sea-level rise by 2300,” KTVU stated. Such a dramatic increase would have catastrophic consequences for millions of people living in low-lying coastal regions around the world.

Therefore, while the AIS’s temporary recovery is certainly worth noting, it should not be misinterpreted as evidence that global warming is reversing. In fact, the very mechanisms that caused the ice sheet to gain mass could themselves be driven by a climate system that is growing more unstable.

The broader scientific consensus remains unchanged: human-driven climate change continues to pose severe risks to the planet’s ecosystems and societies. The AIS’s recent gains should be seen as a complex and nuanced event — a product of transient climate variability, not a permanent shift in direction.

In conclusion, the observed growth of the Antarctic Ice Sheet between 2021 and 2023 is both a surprising and noteworthy phenomenon. It demonstrates that short-term climate events can temporarily alter long-term trends, offering brief respite from some of the dire projections surrounding sea-level rise. However, this recovery is not a sign that the climate crisis is easing. Rather, it highlights the unpredictable nature of a warming world and the importance of continued vigilance, research, and action to mitigate the worst impacts of climate change. As one key finding in the study illustrates, even a temporary gain in Antarctic ice does not erase the long-term losses or the growing influence of warming-related feedback loops.

A new international study has revealed that nearly 40 percent of the world’s existing glaciers are already at risk of disappearing, even if global temperatures were to stabilize at today’s levels. This stark assessment suggests that the world’s glaciers are far more vulnerable to climate change than previously believed.

Published in the journal Science, the research highlights that glaciers are more reactive to rising temperatures than earlier estimates had indicated. The findings raise serious concerns for regions dependent on glacier-fed water sources, as well as for global sea-level rise and long-term climate stability.

If the Earth continues on its current trajectory, with temperatures rising toward 2.7°C based on existing climate policies, more than 75 percent of the total glacier mass could be lost. This alarming projection underscores how critical it is to halt further global warming.

Dr. Harry Zekollari, a co-author of the study and Associate Professor at Vrije Universiteit in Brussels, emphasized the importance of even the smallest efforts to reduce warming. “Our study makes it painfully clear that every fraction of a degree matters,” he said. “The choices we make today will resonate for centuries, determining how much of our glaciers can be preserved.”

Glaciers have long been viewed as sensitive indicators of climate change, and their retreat has helped scientists track global warming trends. However, Dr. Lilian Schuster, co-lead author of the research, warned that the real situation is far worse than what is currently visible. “But the situation for glaciers is actually far worse than visible in the mountains today,” she noted.

One key finding is that smaller glaciers, especially those most critical to local human communities, are disproportionately affected. The presence of massive ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland tends to obscure the vulnerability of these smaller glaciers in global analyses. But the study found that some of the world’s most important glacier regions are nearing critical thresholds.

In regions like the European Alps, the Rocky Mountains in the western U.S. and Canada, and Iceland, the impact of a 2°C rise in temperature could be devastating. At that level, these areas could lose between 85 and 90 percent of their glacier ice compared to 2020 levels. Scandinavia’s glaciers are even more fragile, with predictions indicating that glacier ice there may disappear entirely at 2°C warming.

The consequences are especially troubling for the Hindu Kush Himalaya region, where glaciers feed major rivers relied on by around 2 billion people. If temperatures rise by 2°C, this region could see a 75 percent reduction in glacier ice compared to 2020. That would have major repercussions for water supply, agriculture, and regional ecosystems.

However, there is still some hope. If global temperature rise is kept within the Paris Agreement target of 1.5°C, many glaciers could be partially preserved. In this more optimistic scenario, even Scandinavia would retain 20 to 30 percent of its glacier ice, while regions like the Himalayas and the Caucasus might retain as much as 40 to 45 percent. This demonstrates the importance of pursuing aggressive decarbonization strategies and highlights how critical it is to remain within the 1.5°C target.

“This report reiterates the growing urgency of the 1.5°C temperature goal and rapid decarbonization to achieve it,” the researchers emphasized in their publication.

The conclusions are based on a detailed modeling effort led by 21 scientists from 10 different countries. The team used eight glacier models to simulate future ice loss for over 200,000 glaciers around the world. For each modeled scenario, they assumed that global temperatures would remain stable for thousands of years, providing a clear picture of how today’s decisions could echo far into the future.

Their findings show that glaciers will continue to shrink quickly over the next few decades, even in the absence of additional warming. This is because glaciers take a long time to adjust to new temperature conditions. As a result, even without further increases in global temperature, glaciers will keep retreating for centuries, moving to higher altitudes and establishing new, smaller equilibrium states.

Interestingly, glaciers in tropical regions may fare slightly better in terms of retaining ice, but not for hopeful reasons. The central Andes in countries like Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, as well as glacier regions in East Africa and Indonesia, are expected to retain more ice simply because they have already lost most of it.

Some recent examples illustrate how fast this process is occurring. Venezuela’s last glacier, Humboldt, lost its official glacier status in 2024. In Indonesia, the ironically named “Infinity Glacier” is also expected to vanish within the next two years. Similarly, Germany saw one of its last five glaciers disappear during a 2022 heatwave, and Slovenia is believed to have lost its final actual glacier decades ago.

These examples reflect a broader pattern of irreversible loss. Once glaciers shrink past a certain threshold, they can no longer maintain their mass balance, and their decline accelerates. In many parts of the world, this means that future generations will grow up without ever seeing the ice that once defined their landscapes.

Despite the grim projections, the study’s authors remain hopeful that swift and meaningful action can still change the outcome. “The decisions made by political leaders and societies today will define the fate of glaciers for generations to come,” the team wrote.

Their message is clear: the fate of glaciers is not entirely sealed, but time is running out. With the climate crisis intensifying, each fraction of a degree of warming avoided could mean the difference between preserving a vital water source and watching it disappear.

While the situation for glaciers is dire, it is not hopeless. The study provides a compelling call to action for policymakers, industries, and individuals alike to pursue immediate and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. The science has spoken — now it is a matter of will and urgency.

Deep within the South Pacific Ocean lies a massive stretch of land that has largely remained concealed beneath the waves. Known as Zealandia, this vast underwater expanse covers nearly two million square miles, or about five million square kilometers, and is now being considered by many geologists as Earth’s newest continent. Only a small portion of it—roughly five percent—rises above sea level in places like New Zealand. Scientists believe Zealandia broke off from ancient supercontinents millions of years ago, making it a significant geological discovery.

Zealandia’s Ancient Origins

Geologist Nick Mortimer of GNS Science has led efforts to unravel Zealandia’s past. He and fellow researchers traced its history back more than 100 million years, to the era when a supercontinent called Gondwana dominated the southern hemisphere. Gondwana once included what are now South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and parts of Asia.

Over time, Gondwana began to break apart, with different land masses drifting in various directions. One of these drifting sections eventually formed Zealandia. The landmass, once above sea level, began to submerge due to changes in tectonic pressures.

Around 85 million years ago, Zealandia started to separate from West Antarctica. It later detached from Australia, becoming an isolated landmass. As time passed, the continental crust in the region became thinner and cooler, eventually sinking beneath the ocean. Today, Zealandia remains mostly submerged, yet it carries tremendous scientific importance.

Clues from Geological Exploration

Although geologists had long speculated that this submerged region had continental characteristics, it wasn’t widely acknowledged as a separate continent. For years, underwater ridges and plateaus were thought to be disjointed fragments rather than parts of a unified landmass.

However, recent scientific advances have shifted that view. Researchers utilized geochronology, a technique that determines the age of rocks by analyzing the decay of radioactive elements, to build a timeline of Zealandia’s formation.

“By dating these rocks and studying the magnetic anomalies they presented, we were able to map the major geological units across North Zealandia,” the researchers explained. This helped demonstrate that the submerged terrain shares core traits with other continents.

Rock samples gathered from Zealandia’s northern areas revealed a diverse collection of sandstone, volcanic stones, and basaltic lava, dating from the Early Cretaceous to the Eocene epoch. These findings confirmed the region’s geological consistency and ancient origins.

Magnetic Evidence Strengthens the Case

Magnetic analysis also provided compelling support for Zealandia’s classification as a continent. By examining magnetic anomalies—variations in the Earth’s magnetic field caused by geological features—researchers identified clear patterns related to past volcanic events. These anomalies matched the ages of the rocks obtained from undersea dredging, aligning with known volcanic pulses from the Cretaceous and Eocene periods.

The researchers discovered intraplate basalt formations, which typically form within a tectonic plate rather than along its edges. These consistent magnetic and geological signals suggested that Zealandia was not merely random pieces of ocean crust but a structured and cohesive landmass.

Tectonic Forces Behind the Submersion

The sinking of Zealandia was largely driven by tectonic plate movements. These massive plates constantly shift over geological time. In some places, they collide, causing one plate to be forced under another—a process called subduction.

As Zealandia’s crust stretched and thinned, seawater eventually covered most of the land. Only a few islands remain above sea level today. These changes were caused by the gradual stretching and shifting of tectonic plates beneath the Pacific region.

Why Zealandia Matters

Understanding Zealandia helps scientists better comprehend how continents evolve under different tectonic forces. The sunken landmass holds valuable clues about Earth’s distant past, including its climate history and plate tectonic dynamics.

“Zealandia’s underwater status in no way diminishes its geological significance,” said a researcher from GNS Science. Despite being submerged, the continent retains features that offer insights into how land masses change shape and move over millions of years.

Sedimentary rocks found across Zealandia indicate that some regions remained above water even after its separation from other continents. Meanwhile, basalt samples point to newer volcanic activity triggered by shifting plate boundaries.

Combining rock dating techniques, magnetic readings, and tectonic models allowed scientists to accurately map Zealandia’s boundaries and internal zones. This growing body of evidence supports its recognition as a true continent.

Unexplored Regions Await Discovery

Large parts of Zealandia still remain unexplored. Advanced technologies such as deep-sea drilling and seismic imaging are expected to uncover more about the region’s geological structure and history.

Researchers hope to use this data to understand how drifting continents impact sea levels, climate systems, and biodiversity over time. Each new discovery has the potential to reshape our understanding of how Earth’s surface evolves.

While other submerged land fragments, called microcontinents, exist around the world, Zealandia stands out because of its sheer size and completeness. It represents not only a vast archive of Earth’s geological history but also a reminder that much of our planet remains hidden from view.

Future international research efforts will likely refine the current knowledge of Zealandia’s role in global tectonics. New studies may also contribute to broader discussions on what qualifies as a continent in modern geological terms.

In short, Zealandia’s discovery adds a new chapter to Earth science, illustrating the dynamic nature of our planet’s crust. It challenges existing definitions and highlights the need for continued exploration beneath the oceans. As research continues, this submerged giant may take its place alongside the seven recognized continents, forever changing the way we see the world.

The Old Farmer’s Almanac has just unveiled its long-range weather forecast for the summer of 2025, and it promises a dramatic season across much of the United States. This trusted annual publication, which has been around since 1792, is relied upon for its insights into weather, farming, gardening, and even recipes. As vacationers, gardeners, and event planners look toward summer travel, beach days, and key holidays like the Fourth of July and Labor Day, the latest forecast offers plenty to think about.

The Old Farmer’s Almanac bases its predictions on three key scientific principles: solar science, climatology, and meteorology. Thanks to this unique combination, it has guided generations of farmers, gardeners, outdoors enthusiasts, and travelers for over two centuries. The publication boasts an impressive 80% accuracy rate for its weather forecasts, making it a widely trusted source.

The outlook for the summer months of June, July, and August in 2025 can be summed up in one word: hot. According to the Almanac, Americans should prepare for “a scorcher of a summer.” Much of the country is expected to experience hot and dry conditions, with a few regional exceptions. The forecast warns that the extreme heat experienced during the summer of 2024 could return and possibly be matched—or even surpassed—in 2025.

The highest temperatures are expected to occur gradually as the summer progresses, with the most intense heat likely to arrive in July and August. As for precipitation, most of the western half of the U.S. is expected to see slightly below-average rainfall, although the country overall should experience typical precipitation levels.

Given the vastness of the United States, the Almanac divides the country into 18 separate regions for a more precise weather outlook. For areas not specifically mentioned, a hot and dry summer is the general expectation. However, several regions will face unique weather challenges that differ from the national trend.

In the Northeast, which includes Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, western Massachusetts, and eastern New York, the summer is expected to be especially humid due to higher-than-average precipitation levels. This combination of heat and moisture is likely to result in a muggy season for the region.

Southern Florida is one of the rare areas expecting cooler and wetter conditions. Region 5, which covers this part of the state, is forecasted to experience a “cool, rainy summer with hurricane potential from mid-July to late August.” The possibility of hurricanes adds an extra layer of concern for residents and travelers alike.

The Lower Lakes region, comprising Michigan, eastern Illinois, northern Indiana, and northern Ohio, is anticipated to receive more rain than usual this summer. This increase in precipitation is expected to keep the area somewhat cooler and wetter than other parts of the country.

Similarly, the Ohio Valley—including southern Illinois, southern Indiana, southern Ohio, Kentucky, and the western half of West Virginia—is forecasted to see above-average rainfall. This pattern suggests a wetter summer for Region 7, despite the rising temperatures across the rest of the country.

The Deep South, encompassing Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee, is expected to face some of the most intense heat of the season. According to the forecast, this area will see “extreme, record-breaking heat” throughout the summer, which could put strain on energy systems and health resources.

The Heartland, made up of Iowa, Missouri, eastern Kansas, and eastern Nebraska, is also predicted to have a sweltering summer. The Almanac reports that this area will experience temperatures “averaging four degrees higher than usual and rainfall totals lower than normal.” This could result in drought-like conditions if the heat persists over an extended period.

Even more intense conditions are expected in Region 11, which includes Texas and Oklahoma. The Almanac states this will be “the hottest region in the country this summer,” with temperatures forecasted to reach four degrees above normal and limited rainfall. The most concerning period will be early August, which is identified as the peak risk time for hurricanes in the area.

While many areas will be suffering under extreme heat, the northern Intermountain region—covering eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, and western Colorado—is forecasted to experience cooler-than-average temperatures along with average rainfall. This might come as a welcome relief for residents accustomed to hotter, drier summers.

Meanwhile, the Desert Southwest, which stretches from southern California to western Texas, is bracing for much hotter than usual conditions. The Almanac notes that this region is “anticipated to experience significantly warmer temperatures than usual, ushering in opportunities for record-breaking heat.” Given the arid nature of the region, this prediction could have serious implications for water conservation and wildfire risks.

In contrast to much of the country, the Pacific Northwest—which includes western Washington and Oregon—is expected to be cooler than average. However, like the rest of the nation, this region is also forecasted to receive less rainfall than usual, potentially increasing wildfire risk despite the milder temperatures.

Alaska’s weather will vary significantly by region. The northern half is forecasted to be drier than usual, while the southern half is likely to see more rainfall. Still, overall, the state is expected to be cooler than average this summer, which may help counterbalance some of the climate extremes seen elsewhere.

Finally, Hawaii is predicted to have a wet, rainy summer. The smaller islands are expected to experience cooler-than-normal conditions, whereas the Big Island is forecasted to be hotter. This contrast within the same state highlights how varied the summer of 2025 may be, even in tropical regions.

In summary, while some parts of the country may escape the worst of the summer heat, the general consensus from the Old Farmer’s Almanac is that Americans should brace themselves for another intense season. With phrases like “a scorcher of a summer,” “record-breaking heat,” and “hurricane potential,” the 2025 forecast is a reminder of the increasing variability and extremity of seasonal weather patterns. Whether you’re planning a summer vacation, working outdoors, or just trying to stay cool at home, these predictions provide a valuable tool for preparation.

The world’s richest 10 percent are playing an outsized role in fueling global warming, significantly more than the poorest half of the population, according to a recent study published in the journal Nature Climate Change. The international research reveals that this affluent segment is responsible for nearly two-thirds of the warming experienced globally since 1990. This climate impact has contributed to intensifying extreme weather events such as prolonged heat waves and severe droughts across the globe.

The study was conducted by scientists from Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and Australia and aimed to understand the extent to which wealthy individuals are accelerating climate change. By analyzing emissions patterns and their consequences, the researchers found that a small segment of high-income earners are disproportionately contributing to environmental degradation. According to the findings, the top 1 percent of global earners alone have contributed 26 times more to the rise in rare, high-temperature events than the average person. Their influence on drought conditions is also substantial, having contributed 17 times more to droughts in sensitive regions like the Amazon.

Lead author Sarah Schongart of ETH Zurich in Switzerland emphasized that the causes of extreme climate phenomena are not distant or vague but are tied directly to the behavior of individuals, especially those with significant financial means. “Our study shows that extreme climate impacts are not just the result of abstract global emissions. We can directly link them to our lifestyle and investment choices, which in turn are linked to wealth,” she explained.

This perspective challenges the traditional view that climate change is simply a collective outcome of industrial activity or national policies. Instead, it points to specific socioeconomic groups whose personal and financial decisions have far-reaching consequences for the planet. The study underlines how the consumption habits and investment patterns of wealthy individuals exacerbate climate injustice, particularly in tropical and economically disadvantaged regions.

The implications of the research are most stark in areas such as Southeast Asia, the Amazon basin, and southern Africa. These regions have historically contributed the least to global carbon emissions yet are bearing the brunt of climate-induced suffering. Whether through deforestation, reduced rainfall, or intense heat events, the consequences are disproportionately severe in these parts of the world.

“If everyone on Earth had emitted like the bottom 50 percent of the global population, the world would have experienced minimal additional warming since 1990,” said co-author Carl-Friedrich Schleussner, who heads the Integrated Climate Impacts Research Group at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Austria. His comment points to the stark contrast in environmental impact between income groups and the potential benefits of equitable emission behavior.

Importantly, the research goes beyond analyzing personal consumption such as air travel, diet, and vehicle use. It highlights the role of financial investments made by wealthy individuals as a major source of carbon emissions. These investments often support high-emission sectors like fossil fuel production, heavy industry, and large-scale agriculture—activities that contribute significantly to climate change but remain indirectly linked to the lifestyles of investors.

This distinction is crucial. While everyday choices like energy use and transportation matter, the carbon footprint associated with wealth-related financial portfolios is often much larger and less visible. For instance, investment in oil companies or high-carbon industries effectively extends a person’s climate impact beyond their personal lifestyle.

According to the researchers, focusing solely on personal behavior without addressing the systemic and financial underpinnings of emissions will fail to produce meaningful change. They argue for targeted climate policies that regulate the financial actions of the wealthy. By shifting capital away from polluting industries and encouraging sustainable investments, policymakers could significantly reduce global emissions and help close the environmental equity gap.

Redirecting financial resources is not only a moral imperative but a strategic one. If investment portfolios were aligned with climate goals—such as those set by the Paris Agreement—major emission reductions could be achieved without solely relying on public spending or mass behavioral change. Wealthy individuals and institutions have the financial leverage to steer entire sectors toward greener practices, provided they are held accountable or incentivized to do so.

The study’s findings also feed into a broader debate around climate justice. As discussions around environmental responsibility evolve, there is growing recognition that emissions are not just a technical issue but also a social and economic one. Wealth disparity is increasingly viewed as a driver of environmental harm, with climate policies needing to reflect this reality to be effective.

This emerging consensus calls for more than carbon taxes or green subsidies. It suggests the need for structural reforms in global finance and investment regulations. High-income countries and individuals must consider not only their direct emissions but also the ripple effects of their financial choices across borders and ecosystems.

The research team insists that their work should inform international climate negotiations and national strategies moving forward. By incorporating income-based emission data and targeting high-emission individuals and their financial activities, governments could better design fair and effective climate policies.

Schongart and her colleagues conclude that understanding the unequal distribution of emissions is key to developing just climate solutions. The emissions of the world’s wealthiest are not just a statistical outlier—they are a central element in the current climate crisis. Without addressing the role of wealth and financial influence, the world risks continuing a pattern where the vulnerable pay the highest price for a problem they did little to create.

The study ultimately raises urgent questions about who holds responsibility for the planet’s warming and what changes are necessary to prevent further damage. As the climate emergency deepens, the role of the rich—and their investments—has become an unavoidable part of the conversation.

The global climate responds sensitively to major oceanic shifts, especially changes in ocean temperature and wind circulation. These fluctuations are tracked closely because they play a crucial role in shaping seasonal weather across continents. A detailed look at the Pacific Ocean reveals significant changes as the La Niña phase concludes, prompting atmospheric transitions that could influence summer conditions in the U.S. and Canada and offer hints about the upcoming winter.

The La Niña phenomenon, part of the broader El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), marks the colder phase of a recurring cycle in the tropical Pacific Ocean. ENSO shifts between cold and warm phases every one to three years, often beginning in late summer or early fall and persisting through the spring. Some instances, however, have extended up to two or three years.

In this context, La Niña refers to cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific, while El Niño represents the opposite—warmer-than-average conditions. These phases bring about notable differences in atmospheric pressure. As described, “During an El Niño, the pressure over the tropical Pacific is lower, with more rainfall and storms in this region. But during a La Niña, the pressure rises over the region, creating stable conditions and fewer storms over the equatorial Pacific.”

These shifts in pressure eventually impact global atmospheric circulation, affecting weather patterns across both hemispheres. Analyzing anomaly data from early 2024 shows a temperature decline starting in December and bottoming out in January, with La Niña fading by March. “As you can see, they were all typically coldest around January,” noted the study. Historical comparisons show that several past La Niña events transitioned into El Niño phases before the following winter, while others saw a return of La Niña.

Recent ocean analyses highlight weakening cold anomalies in ENSO zones, signaling the end of the 2024/2025 La Niña. “You can also see that warmer anomalies are emerging in the ENSO area. This has raised the overall temperature in the region, officially ending the weak La Niña phase of the 2024/2025 season.” A video based on monthly ocean data confirms this trend, documenting the retreat of cold anomalies and the rise of warmer waters.

Beyond surface-level temperatures, wind and subsurface ocean patterns play a vital role. A graph of temperature anomalies in the ENSO 3.4 region illustrates a post-January warming trend that reached neutral levels by March. Meanwhile, surface anomaly graphics from a broader region reveal cooling from November to February, followed by neutral conditions emerging in April.

Examining subsurface temperatures shows that although cold water masses still exist at depths of up to 150 meters in the central Pacific, the surface layer has warmed, especially in the east. “The cold pool of the La Niña is still visible… But its surface features have been eroded, with warmer waters also rising in the eastern regions.”

With La Niña concluded and its winter evolution understood, historical analogs help predict what might come next. La Niña typically leaves atmospheric imprints during winter and spring, but these fade as ENSO conditions stabilize. The transition from cold to neutral ENSO is expected to spark notable atmospheric changes.

Comparing current data with years that followed similar La Niña-to-neutral transitions reveals valuable insights. Compiled weather patterns from those years show distinct features, such as “a high-pressure area over Canada, also covering the northern and western United States and eastern Canada,” with “a weak indication of a low-pressure area” over the southern and eastern U.S.

Interestingly, current summer pressure forecasts display similar traits, including high-pressure zones over western and eastern Canada and signs of low pressure over the eastern U.S. “This shows us that some atmospheric features can result from having similar oceanic conditions.”

Looking at temperature patterns during similar transitions, historical records show warmer-than-average conditions in the western and northern U.S. and Canada, while some regions like the eastern U.S. and Pacific Northwest recorded cooler temperatures. Current forecasts align with this to some extent. “We do not see any below normal temperatures forecast over the eastern United States, we do see an area of near normal temperatures.”

The cooler temperature anomaly over the eastern U.S. is attributed to a corresponding low-pressure zone, which moderates temperatures compared to the western half of the continent. While extreme heat may not dominate the entire continent this summer, signs point to a milder or more typical summer for the eastern U.S.

As attention shifts toward the longer-term outlook, forecasts for ENSO into autumn and winter 2025/2026 become vital. The latest data from ECMWF projects no strong anomalies, suggesting continued neutral conditions through autumn. “It shows a lack of any significant anomalies, either warm or cold. This indicates a continuation of a neutral phase into Autumn, and likely towards Winter 2025/2026.”

Long-range ensemble forecasts reinforce this idea, placing most projections within the warm-neutral phase. While there’s still a possibility of another La Niña, it’s currently seen as unlikely. As mentioned, “There is also a chance for a new La Niña event, but based on the past years, that scenario is at the present time less likely.” Instead, there’s a growing possibility of a new El Niño arriving in 2026.

To understand what a stable neutral ENSO might mean for winter, analog years once again offer insight. Examining the November to March timeframe reveals a trend of low pressure over Canada and high pressure over the North Pacific following La Niña events. Though far-off forecasts are often unreliable, CanSIPS modeling data echoes this historical pattern: “A low-pressure zone over Canada and a high-pressure zone in the North Pacific.”

These patterns often create cold-air reserves in western Canada, driven by low-pressure systems that generate strong northerly winds. “That northerly flow brings colder air down from the polar regions, and creates a broad area of cold air reserve.”

This stored cold air can move into the United States when pressure patterns shift, bringing cold spells. CanSIPS projections—used more for trend analysis than precise forecasting—support this possibility by showing a large cold-air mass extending into the U.S.

Ultimately, examining past winters suggests that when oceanic and atmospheric setups align, they can lead to recurring seasonal patterns. As the report concluded, “Just like 1+1 equals 2, we can also see in the weather how a combination of certain global factors can produce a similar winter season more than once.”

Thus, with La Niña officially behind us and a neutral ENSO state prevailing, North America is poised for a relatively typical summer in the east and a potentially cooler, variable winter ahead—depending on how ENSO conditions evolve into 2026.