The film “Conclave” may have recently introduced audiences to the grandeur and drama of the modern papal conclave, but the process of electing a new pope has a rich and complex history spanning centuries. From epic delays to political intrigues, this ancient Catholic tradition has generated numerous fascinating facts, many of which are highlighted through research such as Miles Pattenden’s Electing the Pope in Early Modern Italy, 1450–1700, and insights from scholars like Elena Cangiano, an archaeologist at Viterbo’s Palazzo dei Papi.
The most drawn-out papal conclave in history occurred in the 13th century, following the death of Pope Clement IV. It took the Church an astonishing 1,006 days—nearly three years—to elect his successor, Pope Gregory X. This record-setting delay led to public outrage in Viterbo, a town north of Rome where the cardinals had gathered. In response, the exasperated townspeople physically locked the cardinals inside the meeting hall, which ultimately gave rise to the word “conclave,” meaning “under lock and key.” The deadlock was rooted in divisions between supporters of the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. Eventually, a compromise led to Gregory X’s election in September 1271, nearly three years after the process had begun.
This long delay prompted Viterbo’s residents to escalate their pressure tactics. Not only did they confine the cardinals, but they also removed the roof of the building and limited their food supply to bread and water. The aim was to force a decision. Following this ordeal, Gregory X established rules to prevent such prolonged elections in the future. In 1274, he decreed that if the conclave extended beyond three days, cardinals would only receive one meal a day. If it stretched past eight days, their diet would be restricted to “bread, water and wine.” Though these restrictions have since been abolished, they reflect the intensity and desperation surrounding papal elections in earlier times.
On the opposite end of the spectrum, the fastest conclave occurred in 1503 when Pope Julius II was elected in just a few hours, after the minimum required waiting period. That rule, introduced after 1274, mandates a pause of at least 10 days between a pope’s death and the start of voting, later extended to 15 days to allow cardinals time to reach Rome. In modern history, conclaves have generally been quicker: Pope Francis was elected on the fifth ballot in 2013, Benedict XVI on the fourth in 2005, and Pope Pius XII on the third in 1939.
The Sistine Chapel, famed for Michelangelo’s breathtaking frescoes, has been the site of papal conclaves since 1878. However, the very first conclave held there was in 1492. St. John Paul II, in his 1996 document Universi Dominici Gregis, wrote, “Everything is conducive to an awareness of the presence of God, in whose sight each person will one day be judged.” The cardinals stay nearby, usually in the Domus Santa Marta guest house, allowing them to remain close to the chapel while preserving the sanctity of the process.
Though most conclaves have taken place in Rome, there have been notable exceptions. Throughout history, about 30 conclaves occurred in locations like the Quirinale Palace’s Pauline Chapel, St. John Lateran Basilica, and Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. Additionally, conclaves were occasionally held outside Rome altogether—in Italian cities such as Viterbo, Perugia, Arezzo, and Venice, and in more distant cities including Konstanz in Germany and Lyon in France.
The Catholic Church has also faced periods of deep division, most notably between 1378 and 1417 during the Western Schism. During this nearly 40-year conflict, multiple claimants to the papacy emerged, creating a rift within the Church. Known as antipopes, these rival pontiffs included Clement VII, Benedict XIII, Alexander V, and John XXIII. The crisis was resolved at the Council of Constance in 1417, leading to the election of Martin V, who was recognized as the legitimate pope and helped restore unity to the Church.
Another lesser-known aspect of conclave history involves the living conditions of the cardinals. Prior to the construction of the Domus Santa Marta in 1996, conclave participants often had to sleep on cots in sparsely furnished rooms near the Sistine Chapel. Descriptions from the 16th and 17th centuries paint a grim picture. “The cardinals simply had to have a more regular and comfortable way of living because they were old men, many of them with quite advanced disease,” wrote historian Miles Pattenden. Poor hygiene and lack of ventilation posed serious health risks, especially during the summer months. Some electors even fell seriously ill during the process.
Secrecy has long been a cornerstone of the conclave. Initially, papal elections were more transparent, but fears of political interference reached a peak during the prolonged Viterbo conclave. Gregory X responded by mandating that cardinals be sequestered “cum clave” until a pope was chosen. The goal was to foster an atmosphere of divine contemplation, free from external pressures. Over the centuries, popes have reinforced these confidentiality rules, ensuring that the deliberations remain shrouded in silence and solemnity.
Age has also played a significant role in conclave history. The youngest pope ever elected was Pope John XII, who took the papal office at just 18 years old in the year 955. On the other end of the spectrum, Pope Celestine III (1191) and Celestine V (1294) were each about 85 years old when elected. In more recent times, Benedict XVI was 78 when chosen in 2005, making him one of the older popes in modern history.
While modern tradition holds that popes are chosen from among the College of Cardinals, this is not a strict requirement. The last non-cardinal to be elected pope was Urban VI in 1378, a monk and the Archbishop of Bari. Despite the longstanding dominance of Italian popes, the Church has elected a diverse array of pontiffs. John Paul II, elected in 1978, was Polish; Benedict XVI, elected in 2005, was German; and Pope Francis, chosen in 2013, hails from Argentina. Other non-Italian popes in history include Alexander VI of Spain (1492), Gregory III of Syria (731), and Adrian VI of the Netherlands (1522).
From protracted deadlocks and anti-pope controversies to unique venues and rigorous secrecy, the history of the conclave provides a window into the deep rituals and high drama behind the election of the leader of the Catholic Church. As dramatized in films and studied by historians, the conclave remains one of the most mysterious and enduring traditions in religious history.